The first two images appear in Luis de Milan's El Maestro of 1536, the earliest vihuela publication. The instruments are similar in outline, with changes in the decorative features, although these decorations remain in the same positions on the soundboard. The headstocks are slightly different, the second instrument showing a central string line, possibly decorative, possibly a caprice of the artist. Otherwise they are similar instruments. In relation to the body size of Orfeus, the string length seems quite long, possibly 66cms or more. Although it is thought that the solo vihuela repertoire was generally played on small vihuelas in A or G, larger instruments might well have been used in song accompaniment. Milan mentions in his Introduction, 'If the vihuela is large, take the first (string) more thick than thin; and if it is small, take the first more thin than thick' - therebye indicating at least two, possibly, more string lengths, pitches and body sizes. NB Orfeus is plucking the strings away from the bridge area. The left-hand thumb is not visible.
This image comes from Luys de Narvaez's book, and although the small drawing is short on detail, it does provide a clear example of an instrument with a small body and long neck. Such instruments are not unknown in Mexico and South American countries today. The player is plucking the strings away from the bridge area. The left-hand thumb is not visible.
Here we have an image from Mudarra's book, possibly printed in reverse, possibly a left-handed player. Unlike the images above, the rose is set low on the body. This might imply structural changes inside the instrument with stress-supporting bars. Some claim this to have been an Italian viola da mano influence. Note also that the pegbox is bent backwards, lute-style. The player is plucking the string near the rose, not close to the bridge. The right-hand thumb is not visible.
Here are two versions of the same painting by Pintoricchio, 1493, The Vatican, depicting Lucrezia Borgia on Harp, a singer (probably) and a viola da mano player. The instrument depicts a viola da mano in use a generation before Francesco da Milano and Luis de Milan, both of whom published their viola-vihuela books in 1536. Here the instrument clearly displays its viol family roots, very much a plucked viol. The sickle pegbox and incurved waists are obvious features. Note also how the instrument body seems to expand in the middle, tapering towards the base and neck - another viol feature. The left-hand thumb is visible, the fingerboard being almost parallel to the floor, and may have been used for stopping notes on the lowest course. The right hand technique is decidedly thumb-out. The string length seems quite long, in the mid 60s.
Another plucked viol from Italy from the painting Madonna and Child with Saints by Veronese artist Girolamo dai Libri (1474 - 1555). There is a reconstruction of this instrument by Alexander Batov. A smaller instrument than the Pintoricchio above, certainly suitable for the solo repertoire which contains wide left-hand stretches. The rose is relatively large, and placed in the centre of the body - an intersting detail considering that in the Pintoricchio painting, the player's arm and hand obscures this part of the instrument. The player seems to be playing with a thumb-in technique, and the left-hand thumb is not visible.
This beautiful image comes from Barcelona Cathedral, apparently early 1500s. I would like to have clearer photographs, as the instrument has a number of interesting features. Despite being Spanish, there are a number of features associated with the viol, such as the sickle pegbox. This should counter the impression held by many that the Italian viola da mano had a sickle pegbox, while the Spanish vihuela did not. Note also that there are only six frets - again a viol feature. The decorative appointments are almost identical to the Milan images at the top of this page, but the rose is set low on the body, possibly a lute-related feature. Are my eyes deceiving me - there appear to be only five courses of strings? Fuenllana published (Seville, 1554) pieces for the five-course vihuela, and it is thought by some commentators that these were for a 6c vihuela whose first string, the chanterelle, had broken - a common and frustrating occurence. Might this image show that there was an instrument we could call the 5c vihuela? The right hand is playing thumb-out, the left-hand thumb is not visible.
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Details from a mid-16th century Spanish paintings by Juan de Juanes (1523-79) from the Convento de Santa Clara, Gandia, Valencia, Spain. Both instruments are curious in that the upper bouts are larger than the lower bouts. The first certainly looks like it has two roses, the second possibly one or two. Thumb-out right hands, no visible left hand thumbs. Quite long string lengths.
From Ferrara c.1510, a bowed viol and a plucked vihuela with sickle pegbox. A large body with eleven gut frets, central rose. Thumb-in right hand and thumb-over left hand. So, not all Italian instruments had deep-cut, viol-style waists, and not all Spanish instruments had straight pegboxes. Was there indeed any difference between the instruments?
A beautifully proportioned instrument painted by Lopez y Vega. The decorative appointments are just visible, and are similar to the Milan image at the top of this page. I would like a better reproduction (can anyone oblige?). The fretboard is sloping downwards, necessitating a thumb-in right-hand technique and thumb-over, left-hand technique.
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Luca Signorelli, c.1500, San Brizio, Italy. This appears to be a deep-bodied Italian vihuela with sickle pegbox. Thumb-out right hand. The left-hand thumb is not visible. The angel also appears to be singing. An instrument designed for song accompaniment? The rose is set low.
An oft-reproduced image by Marcantonio Raimondi of the singer, Giovanni Filoteo Achillini, playing a viola da mano. Note the vaulted case under Achillini's foot, revealing the shape of the back of the instrument. There is a discrepancy between the number of strings drawn near his plucking hand and the number of tuning pegs, so we should not trust too much in the details of the instrument. But it is important to remember that the viola-vihuela was probably used more for song accompaniment than for solos. Cf. Milan's Libro Intitulado El Cortesano, where Milan describes his performances at court - always song, never solos...
Original vihuelas
Left: Quito , Ecuador : this instrument is encased with the bones of a saint in the Church of the Compañía de Jesus , and has not been available for extensive organological study. It is said that, judging by the many scratch marks on the soundboard, it was used mainly for strumming. Unlike baroque guitar music, there is no strumming notated in the vihuela tablature.
Right: Jaquemart-André Museum , Paris : a very large bass vihuela, once used in concerts by Emilio Pujol. Regarded today as a student luthier's very ornate presentation instrument, and of little use for the extant repertoire. There are stunning photographs of the Jaquemart-André instrument on the Barber-Harris website.
Cité de la Musique, Paris : a fairly recent discovery, known variously as E.0748 or ‘Chambure' after its owner. A very pronounced figure of eight shape, with a vaulted, fluted back. According to Batov, from small marks on the bridge, this instrument seems to have been strung in octaves on the three lowest courses. Some academics and luthiers argue that this is the best instrument to copy (luthier Stephen Barber appears to have been the first), while others argue that it is not a vihuela at all, and doesn't even belong to the 16th century... There are good photographs of the original and copies on the Barber-Harris website, and here is a copy by Alexander Batov:
So, what exactly is a vihuela? Every image is different. I can only draw a comparison with the modern steel-strung or even electric guitar: every model is different, yet they have enough in common for everyone to accept they are of the same root. They (vihuelas and violas) doubtless all sounded quite different too, with some players preferring one type over another. Did Milan really play the type that is depicted in his book? We can never be certain. I for one am happy about this state of affairs. Let's not all start commissioning the same model, no matter how successful it might be. Variety is the spice, after all...